Galen’s Simple Drugs 9 preface

So far, I have spoken about the parts of plants, as well as their fruits, juices, and saps. Now, of the drugs that remain, I propose to go through those that are mined and those types that are from the earth itself. Following this, I will also say something about the parts in animals, which are included in the class of drugs and which we use as treatments. It seems better to me to set down first a general discussion about all of these, both for the sake of clarity and so that what has been said can be understood distinctly. For if anyone were to follow in every way those who wrote treatises on drugs, or on materials, or on their preparation, they would often make major mistakes and would misunderstand the things said by me distinctly.

There are two main points in the general discussion I am about to give. The first is whether one should consider burnt products to be hotter or colder than the drugs in their natural state. The second concerns drugs manifesting astringency, which were shown before to be tart and sour in species. I already said something about these in the fourth book, but it is better to remind ourselves even now that the quality and capacity that seem most contrary to astringent drugs are the pungent ones. For the following are astringent: acacia, balaustion (wild pomegranate flower?), hypocist and cytinos (pomegranate flowers?), kekis (oak gall), rheon (rhubarb), and rhoos (pomegranate), omphakion (unripe grapes? or the oil of unripe olives?) and mespila (medlars?), crania (cornelian cherry), pomegranate peels and myrtle. The following, however, are pungent: euphorbia, garlic, onions, leeks, mustard, pepper, ginger, wild carrot, oregano and pennyroyal, calamint and thyme. Therefore, we need only remember the kind of sensation we have of each of the things I mentioned. For the difference of quality in each case will follow immediately, something I went through in the fourth book, together with all the other differences in taste. So, astringent drugs (ta stuphonta) contract, tighten and compress our substance, and for this reason when they are applied externally to whatever part you wish, immediately they render the part shrivelled and contracted. Conversely, when pungent drugs are applied to the skin, they clearly heat it and cause it to swell with a red colour, and if they were to remain for some time, they would cause ulcers. Therefore, it is evidently clear that these ones are cutting and heating, and because of this they draw the blood from the nearby parts towards themselves. But the astringent drugs repel what is contained in these [parts] by naturally cooling, contracting and compressing. Hence, the capacity most contrary to the astringent drugs is the pungent, and the quality in taste bears no resemblance.

How, therefore, some people can say pepper, garlic and all the pungent drugs are astringent is impossible to imgaine. For if they deviated from Greek custom concerning the use of names, and, just as they say the former are astringent, so too they say rhoa (pomegranate), balaustion (wild pomegranate flower?), omphakion (unripe grapes? oil?) and mespilon (medlars) and the like are ‘pungent,’ then we would assume that they are ignorant of Greek words and what they mean, certainly not that they lack the ability to taste or to smell. But since they use a single word to refer to two things, and do it both for the sense of smell and for the sense of taste, and since from the effects of these drugs it is obvious that their natures are extremely contrary to one another, it is fitting for people to wonder whether it is because they lack the ability to sense, or because of ignorance, or even both at the same time. For indeed this is similar to the people who make the claim that snow produces the same sensation as fire, and someone once told me, perhaps because of the exceedingly peculiar way they used names, that there is nothing to prevent one from saying that snow has the same quality and capacity as fire. For he had in fact often seen snow burn the feet of those who walk through it too long. Cleaning the muck from such people’s souls would take more than a little time. But for those who have not been so unfortunate as to live in complete ignorance and who have read the fourth book of my comments, this will suffice to remind them of what I have said up to this point, for the sake of understanding with the proper distinctions the names used for each appropriate thing as all Greeks are accustomed to use them.

I will now move on to the second consideration, which is no longer about names and their signification, but about the nature of things. For the majority believe that all burned substances become cooler than they originally were, while some think, on the contrary, that the heat of all burned substances increases. Both are mistaken. For it is plainly evident that some substances become hotter, as we perceive by taste, or by touch, or by the capacity we observe in use, as I mentioned earlier in the case of pungent and astringent substances. Some others, on the contrary, are evidently less hot after being burned. And this we clearly discern by both sensation and use. By 'use', I mean, as I mentioned earlier, that when applied to the skin, some substances make it redder and warmer, others anaemic and cold, and some increase swelling, others reduce it. Thus, the pungent substances lose much of their heat when they are burned, while those that are not gain it. However, nothing that is burned is entirely cold. For there are traces left behind in them, like embers. For this is how Aristotle referred to it, and it is rinsed out with washings. It is the finest part of the substance of things that are burnt. When it is removed with the water, what remains from what is burnt is an earthy substance. For all moisture is exhausted by burning, and what is left is earthy along with what Aristotle calls ‘embers.’ Therefore, when someone removes and separates it by washing, the water with which the drug was washed takes on a hot capacity that is fine-parted, while the remaining earthy part becomes cold, being able to dry without stinging. I have spoken about these things before, but it is not bad to remember them now, so that, having a fresh reminder of them, someone may follow what will be said more accurately.

Ὅσα μὲν τῶν φυτῶν ἐστι μόρια καὶ καρποὶ καὶ χυλοὶ καὶ ὀποὶ πρόσθεν εἴρηται· νυνὶ δὲ τῶν ὑπολοίπων φαρμάκων ὅσα μεταλλεύεται καὶ ὅσα τῆς γῆς αὐτῆς ἐστιν εἴδη πρόκειται διελθεῖν. ἐφεξῆς δ' αὐτῷ εἰρήσεταὶ τι καὶ περὶ τῶν ἐν τοῖς ζώοις μορίων, οἷς ἐν λόγῳ φαρμάκων χρώμεθα πρὸς τὰς ἰάσεις. κοινὸν δὲ τινα περὶ πάντων αὐτῶν λόγον ἄμεινον εἶναὶ μοι δοκεῖ προτάξαι σαφηνείας τε ἅμα καὶ τοῦ διηρθρωμένως ἀκούειν ἕνεκα τῶν εἰρημένων. ἐὰν γάρ ἕποιτὸ τις τὰ πάντα τοῖς γεγραφόσιν ἤτοι τὰς περὶ τῶν φαρμάκων πραγματείας ἢ τὰς περὶ ὕλης ἢ τὰς περὶ σκευασίας αὐτῶν, ἐν πολλοῖς σφαλήσεται μέγιστα καὶ παρακούσει τῶν ὑπ' ἐμοῦ διωρισμένως λεγομένων.

δυοῖν δ' ὄντων κεφαλαίων τοῦ μέλλοντος λεχθήσεσθαι λόγου κοινοῦ, τὸ μὲν ἕτερόν ἐστιν εἰ τῶν αὐτοφυῶν φαρμάκων τὰ κεκαυμένα θερμότερα χρὴ νομίζειν ἢ ψυχρότερα, τὸ δ' ἕτερον ὑπὲρ τῶν στυφόντων φαρμάκων, ὧν ἐν εἴδει πρόσθεν ἐδείχθη τὰ αὐστηρὰ καὶ τὰ στρυφνά. λέλεκται μὲν οὖν ἤδη περὶ τούτων ἐν τῷ τετάρτῳ τῶνδε τῶν βιβλίων, ἀναμνῆσαι δὲ καὶ νῦν ἄμεινον ὡς ἐναντιωτάτη φαίνεται ποιότης καὶ δύναμις εἶναι τοῖς στύφουσι φαρμάκοις πρὸς τὰ δριμέα. στύφει μὲν γάρ ἀκακία καὶ βαλαύστιον, ὑπόκυστίς τε καὶ κύτινοι καὶ κηκὶς καὶ ῥῆον καὶ ῥοῦς, ὀμφάκιόν τε καὶ μέσπιλα, καὶ κρανία καὶ ῥοιᾶς λέμματα καὶ μύρτα. δριμέα δ' ἐστὶν εὐφόρβιον καὶ σκόροδα καὶ κρόμμυα καὶ πράσα καὶ νᾶπυ καὶ πέπερι καὶ γιγγίβερι καὶ σμύρνιον, ὀρίγανόν τε καὶ γλήχων, καὶ καλαμίνθη καὶ θύμος. χρὴ τοίνυν ἀναμνησθῆναι μόνον ἡμᾶς ὁποίαν αἴσθησιν ἔχομεν ἑκάστου τῶν εἰρημένων. ἀκολουθήσει γάρ εὐθέως ἡ διαφορὰ τῆς ποιότητος αὐτῶν, ἣν ἐν τῷ τετάρτῳ λόγῳ διῆλθον ἅμα ταῖς ἄλλαις γευσταῖς ἁπάσαις διαφοραῖς. συνάγει μὲν οὖν καὶ σφίγγει καὶ πιλεῖ τὴν οὐσίαν ἡμῶν τὰ στύφοντα, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ἐπιτιθέμενα, καθ' ὅ τι ἂν ἐθελήσῃς μέλος ἔξωθεν, εὐθέως ἀποδείκνυσιν αὐτὸ ῥυσόν τε καὶ προσεσταλμένον. ἔμπαλιν δὲ τούτοις τὰ δριμέα κατὰ τοῦ δέρματος ἐπιτιθέμενα θερμαίνει τε σαφῶς αὐτὸ καὶ εἰς ὄγκον συναίρει σὺν ἐρυθρῷ χρώματι, καὶ εἰ χρονίσειεν, ἑλκοῖ. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἐναργῶς φαίνεται τέμνοντὰ τε καὶ θερμαίνοντα, καὶ διὰ τοῦθ' ἕλκοντα πρὸς ἑαυτὰ τὸ ἐκ τῶν πλησιαζόντων μορίων αἷμα. τὰ στύφοντα δ' ἀποκρουόμενα τὸ περιεχόμενον ἐν αὐτοῖς τῷ ψύχειν τε καὶ συνάγειν καὶ πιλεῖν πέφυκεν. ἡ δύναμίς τε οὖν ἐναντιωτάτη τοῖς στύφουσίν ἐστι πρὸς τὰ δριμέα, καὶ ἡ κατὰ τὴν γεῦσιν ποιότης οὐδὲν ὅμοιον ἔχουσα.

πῶς οὖν ἔνιοι καὶ τὸ πέπερι καὶ τὰ σκόροδα καὶ πάντα τὰ δριμέα στύφειν λέγουσιν οὐδ' ἐπινοῆσαι δυνατόν. εἰ μὲν γάρ ὥσπερ ταῦτα στύφειν, οὕτω καὶ ῥοῦν καὶ βαλαύστιον ὀμφάκιόν τε καὶ μέσπιλον ὅσα τ' ἄλλα τοιαῦτα δριμέα προσηγόρευον, ὑπαλλάττοντες τὸ τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἔθος ἐν τοῖς ὀνόμασιν, ἀγνοεῖν μὲν ἂν αὐτοὺς ὑπολάβοιμεν τὰς φωνὰς τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἅμα τοῖς ὑπ' αὐτῶν σημαινομένοις, οὐ μὴν ἀναισθήτους γε κατὰ τὴν γευστικὴν εἶναι δύναμιν, ἢ τὴν ὀσφρητικήν· ἐπεὶ δ' ἑνὶ προσαγορεύουσιν ὀνόματι πράγματα δύο, καὶ τῇ κατὰ τὴν ὄσφρησιν αἰσθήσει καὶ τῇ κατὰ τὴν γεῦσιν, οἷς τε φαίνονται πράττοντα φύσιν ἐναντιωτάτην ἀλλήλοις ἔχοντα, θαυμάσαι προσήκει τοὺς ἀνθρώπους ἢ ἕνεκεν τῆς ἀναισθησίας ἢ τῆς ἀνοίας ἢ καὶ ἀμφοτέρου ἅμα. παραπλήσιον γάρ τοι ποιοῦσιν τῷ λέγοντι τὴν χιόνα τῷ πυρὶ τὴν αὐτὴν αἴσθησιν ἐργάζεσθαι, καὶ τις ὑπὸ συνήθειας τῆς εἰς τοσοῦτον ἀλλοκότου χρήσεως τῶν ὀνομάτων, ἔφη μοὶ ποτε μηδὲν κωλύειν φάναι τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχειν ποιότητὰ τε καὶ δύναμιν τῷ πυρὶ τὴν χιόνα· καὶ γάρ καὶ ταύτην ὦφθαι πολλάκις ἀποκαίουσαν τοὺς πόδας τῶν δι' αὐτῆς ἐπιπολὺ βαδισάντων· τῶν μὲν δὴ τοιούτων ἀνθρώπων οὐ σμικροῦ χρόνου χρεία τὸν ῥύπον ἀποκαθῆραι τῆς ψυχῆς. ὅσοι δ' οὐχ οὕτως ἠτύχησαν ὡς ἐν ἀμαθίᾳ τελέᾳ διαβιῶναι, προανεγνωκόσι τὸ τέταρτον τῶνδε τῶν ὑπομνημάτων, ἀρκεῖ τούτοις ἀναμνήσεως ἕνεκα τὰ μέχρι δεῦρο λελεγμένα, χάριν τοῦ διηρθρωμένως ἀκούειν τῶν ὀνομάτων ἐφ' ἑκάστου τῶν οἰκείων πραγμάτων, ὡς ἅπαντες Ἕλληνες εἰώθασιν χρῆσθαι.

μεταβήσομαι δ' ἐπὶ τὸ δεύτερον ἤδη σκέμμα, μηκέθ' ὑπὲρ ὀνόματός τε καὶ τοῦ κατ' αὐτὸ σημαινομένου γιγνόμενον, ἀλλὰ περὶ φύσεως πράγματος οἱ μὲν γάρ πλεῖστοι νομίζουσι τὰ καυθέντα πάντα ψυχρότερα γίγνεσθαι σφῶν αὐτῶν, ἔνιοι δ' ἔμπαλιν αὐξάνεσθαι τὴν θερμασίαν οἴονται τῶν καυθέντων ἁπάντων, ἁμαρτάνοντες ἑκάτεροι. φανίονται γάρ ἐναργῶς ἔνια μὲν θερμότερα γινόμινα, κατὰ τε τὴν γεῦσιν καὶ τὴν ἁφὴν καὶ τὴν ἐν τῇ χρήσει θεωρουμένην δύναμιν, ὡς ἔμπροσθεν εἶπον ἐπὶ τε τῶν δριμέων καὶ τῶν στυφόντων, ἔνια δ' ἔμπαλιν ἧττον θερμὰ φαινόμενα μετὰ τὸ καυθῆναι· καὶ τοῦτο διαγινώσκομεν σαφῶς τῇ τε αἰσθήσει καὶ τῇ χρήσει. λέγω δὲ χρῆσιν, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ἔμπροσθεν εἶπον, ὅταν ἐπιτιθέντα τῷ δέρματι τὰ μὲν ἐρυθρότερὰ τε καὶ θερμότερα αὐτὰ ποιῇ, τὰ δὲ ἄναιμὰ τε καὶ ψυχρὰ, καὶ τὰ μὲν εἰς ὄγκον ἐξαίρῃ, τὰ δὲ προστέλλῃ. τὰ μὲν οὖν δριμέα πολὺ τῆς θερμότητος ἀπόλλυσι καυθέντα, τὰ δὲ μὴ τοιαῦτα προσλαμβάνει, τελέως δὲ ψυχρὸν οὐδὲν τῶν καυθέντων ἐστίν. ἐγκαταλείπεται γάρ αὐτοῖς οἷον ἐμπύρευμὰ τι· καὶ γάρ προσηγόρευεν οὕτως Ἀριστοτέλης αὐτὸ, καὶ τοῦτ' ἔστι τὸ κατὰ τὰς πλύσεις ἀπορρυπτόμενον. ἔστι δὲ τὸ λεπτομερέστατον τῆς τῶν καυθέντων οὐσίας, οὗ συναπελθόντος τῷ ὕδατι τὸ λοιπὸν τοῦ καυθέντος οὐσία γεώδης ἐστί. τὸ μὲν γάρ ὑγρὸν ἅπαν ἡ καῦσις ἐκδαπανᾷ, τὸ δ' ὑπολειπόμενον γεῶδές ἐστιν ἅμα τῷ πρὸς Ἀριστοτέλους ἐμπυρεύματι κληθέντι. τοῦτ' οὖν ὅταν τις ἀφέληται καὶ χωρίσῃ τῇ πλύσει, τὸ μὲν ὕδωρ, ᾧ τὸ φάρμακον ἐπλύθη, θερμὴν δύναμιν ἐπεκτήσατο λεπτομερῆ, τὸ δ' ὑπόλοιπον γίνεται γεῶδες ψυχρὸν, ξηραίνειν ἀδήκτως δυνάμενον. εἴρηται μὲν οὖν μοι καὶ περὶ τούτων ἔμπροσθεν, ἀλλ' οὐδὲν χεῖρον ἀναμνῆσαι καὶ νῦν, ἵνα τις ὑπόγυον ἐσχηκὼς τὴν ἀνάμνησιν αὐτῶν ἕπηται τοῖς λεχθησομένοις ἀκριβέστερον.

Galen, On the Capacities of Simple Drugs, IX. proem, 12.159–165 K.